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However, the optimal dosage, administration route and long-term safety of NADPH precursors remain unvalidated in large animal models, and the crosstalk of NADPH metabolism, iron homeostasis and retinal inflammation is poorly understood, limiting clinical translation of NADPH-targeted therapies and requiring further investigation

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MATERIALS AND METHODS General procedures The published protocols (1) were followed, with exceptions noted below

M1 macrophages are characterized by high inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression and the secretion of pro-inflammatory factors, whereas M2 macrophages express molecules such as arginase-1 (Arg1) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) and participate in tissue repair ( in vivo do not exist as fixed binary states, but rather display a continuum of functions shaped jointly by microenvironmental signals, metabolic reprogramming, and epigenetic regulation ( In recent years, studies of immunometabolism have gradually revealed the important role of metabolic reprogramming in regulating immune cell function